Abstract:
La planification se définit comme un processus important de l’activité rédactionnelle dont
dépend largement la qualité du produit final notamment en cas de limite temporelle. Le processus de
planification engage la mémoire de travail (MDT) à capacité limitée, ce qui exige une bonne gestion de ressources cognitives. Les stratégies contribuant au développement de ce processus s’avèrent donc utiles
et intéressantes si elles peuvent améliorer la tâche de mémoire de travail. Dans le cadre de cette
recherche, vu les définitions des tâches de MDT et notamment la conception des tâches et des tests
effectués par les spécialistes de psychologie cognitive, nous cherchons à savoir quelle tâche pourrait se
conformer le mieux au fonctionnement de la MDT au cours du processus de la planification. En
deuxième lieu, nous étudierons la mise en place de cette tâche auprès de deux groupes d’apprenants.
در تحقیقات اخیر که فعالیت های نگارشی و هزینه های فرایند شناختی را تجزیه و تحلیل کرده اند، نقش حافظه کاری در تولید متن و مهارت هایی کاهش دهنده ی هزینه شناختی نشان داده شده است. حافظه کاری نگارنده، دانش زبانی و ارجاعی و همچنین مهارت های بازیابی از حافظه بلند مدت برای تولید گفتار ساختارمند را دربر می گیرد. مطالعات درباره تولید نوشتار، به ویژه از هایس و فلاور (1980)، بیشتر به فعالیت نوشتار در زمان واقعی توجه پیدا کردند (الامارگو و همکاران سال 2005؛ اولیو و پیولا 2005؛ اولیو 2011). فرایند تدوین، حافظه کاری با ظرفیت محدود را درگیر می کند امری که نیاز به مدیریت درست منابع شناختی دارد. بنابراین، به نظر می رسد مهارت هایی که در توسعه این فرایند نقش دارند، چنانچه بتوانند فعالیت حافظه کاری را بهبود ببخشند مفید باشند. در این تحقیق، با توجه به رویکردهای اموزشی مرتبط با متون استدلالی، در جستجوی شناسایی رویکردهای راهبردی هستیم که بتوانند فرایند تدوین را با توجه به عملکرد حافظه کاری توسعه دهند. به طور دقیق تر، ما می خواهیم بدانیم که کدام مهارت می تواند در طول فرایند تدوین بهتر با عملکرد حافظه کاری سازگار باشد. دو گروه از زبان اموزان فرانسه در ایران را مورد مطالعه قرار دادیم. زبان اموزان گروه ازمایش در تولید پس ازمون، به خوبی ایده های خود را در چارچوب ساختاری تدوین و توسعه دادند.
Writting activity is considered as a highly cognitive task (Kellogg, 1996).
Regarding this perspective, in parallel with the product i.e. the final text, it is approached by considering
processes implied during the act of production. Recent studies on written production, especially since
Hayes and Flower (1980), are more focused on this activity in real time (Alamargot et al. 2005; Favart
and Olive, 2005; Olive, 2011). In this point of view, working memory and its components are implied,
as a system to manage the activity.
The productivity of the act of writing greatly depends on the process of planning, which is also
defined as a non-automatic process (Chanquoy et alamargot, 2002) requiring a high cognitive load.
Researchers in the field see this process as a decisive step to manage cognitive processes and have shown
that a preliminary plan would be able to reduce the cost of idea generation during writing (Kellogg,
1987b, 1988; Olive et Piolat, 2003) and consequently to enhance the quality in the written product.
This issue has been raised in many researches some of which have particularly addressed approaches
to the question of training the planning and the models for implementing this process. They study the
role of drafting and brainstorming ideas in different forms, drafting vs mental organization of the content
to be produced (Kellogg, 1988) or the models of planning strategy such as hierarchical written outline
(outline) vs visual network of ideas and their relations (cluster) (Kellogg, 1990).
Planning is related to the selection and organization of knowledge retrieving from long-term memory
and calls for knowledge-transforming strategies (Scardamalia et Bereiter, 1987). Using this type of
strategy, the writer avoids automatic idea generation by restructuring information that he has retrieved
following receipt of topic and assignment. In fact, faced with the problems to be solved, controlled
cognition should be emphasized since our cognition is generally activated automatically and most of our
attention is captured by the environment and spontaneous reflections and associations that intrude to
consciousness (Conway, 2005).
Kellogg (2008) estimates that only sufficient executive attention could lead to favorable cognitive
control and the use of knowledge-transforming strategies in order to conceptual content planning. This
underlines the question of the limited capacity of WM raised by McCutchen (1996) and consequently
the available cognitive resources regarding written production.
Teaching Strategies in Written Expression and
Working Memory Function in Adults*
Leila GHARAHBEIGI**/Mahmoud Reza GHASMARDI***/Hamid Reza SHAIRI****
The limited capacity of WM on the one hand and the question of the large attentional resources required by planning on the other hand, lead to taking into account the development of WM and the expertise of the writer to reduce cognitive loads. In this regard, the proper functioning of working memory is obtained with not only age maturity but also, and above all, through training, an issue emphasized by specialists in the field. In this regard, the role of long-term WM (voir Chanquoy et Alamargot, 2002) is particularly emphasized. By this, researchers introduce the expertise concerning a particular cognitive task.
Concerning training, it could be approached based on repetition. However, using strategies should be also taken into consideration. Regarding this issue, recent researches analyzing writing as a cognitive activity underline the role of strategies, which can reduce the cognitive loads required by processes (Olive and Piolat, 2005).
Strategic training of the working memory could be carried out by regular resumption of a regular explicit task which is conformed to the target task. Beside regular tasks, strategic training would be possible by the specific type of tasks known as WM tasks, which are designed by specialists in the field. These tasks generally imply stocking/manipulating of information, over a short span of time. In the field of cognitive psychology, working memory span tasks are of particular interest.
However, although these tasks are quite interesting, they introduce the issue of «transfer»: in other terms, the effect of the trained task on the target task is not guaranteed (Hertzog et al., 2009; Lustig et al., 2009). To tackle this problem, an appropriate design of task, as well as the training program, needs to be adopted to improve the task efficiency.
As part of this research, given the definitions of WM tasks as well as the design of special tasks and tests performed by cognitive psychology specialists, we tried to find out the task of working memory which might best fit the functioning of WM during the planning process. Then we carried out this task in the frame of a didactic program with an experimental group whereas the control group followed an ordinary didactic course. Secondly, we studied the implementation of this task to see in what extent the obtained results have showed an effect in relation to the final product as well as the production. To this end, we observed the items related to the planning process, i.e., conceptual generating and organizing (by the evaluation of the designed task) as well as the textual structure (in a composition) in both groups.