Machine summary:
that» Islam haddeveloped prominent external: critics of administration ilongibefere,--thet modern countries had developed theircurrent-zprotectivze mechanisms against bureaucratic excesses.
”12 The rapid growth and expansion of the Islamic state necessitated the emergence of formal institutions to process all grievances and complaints of citizens against their governors and their subordinate public officials.
Apart from the Qadi (J udge), whose function it was to interpret the laws as well as apply them to particular cases and who derived his authority directly from the Caliph himself, there were two special external critics of public administration that deserve special attention.
The first of these was the institution of Diwan’s N azri fill-Mazalim (The Board of Investigation of Grievances), the highest administrative tribunal of which was generally presided over by the Caliph himself.
Unlike the ombudsman, the Board of Investiga- tion of Grievances is not an instrument of legislature; it functions as an instrument of the Caliph and executes the decisions of the Judge (Qadi).
Its effectiveness as an external critic of public administration was dependent on honesty, justice, and firmness of the Caliph.
Moreover, the Board of Investigation of Grievances is distinguished by the speed of making and enforcing its decisions due to its dual nature as a judicial and executive institution.
The second approach assumes that these ethical values are not sufficient; there must be a means of punishing behavior not in accordance with the stated Islamic laws.
This approach has ensured control of administration by two external critics.